A Call To Arms - Style And Tone Essays - The Sun Also Rises

A Call to Arms - Style and Tone A Call to Arms - Style and Tone "After a while I went out and left the hospital and walked back to the hotel in the rain" (332). This last line of the novel gives an understanding of Ernest Hemingway's style and tone. The overall tone of the book is much different than that of The Sun Also Rises. The characters in the book are propelled by outside forces, in this case WWI, where the characters in The Sun Also Rises seemed to have no direction. Frederick's actions are determined by his position until he deserts the army. Floating down the river with barely a hold on a piece of wood his life, he abandons everything except Catherine and lets the river take him to a new life that becomes increasing difficult to understand. Nevertheless, Hemingway's style and tone make A Farewell to Arms one of the great American novels. Critics usually describe Hemingway's style as simple, spare, and journalistic. These are all good words they all apply. Perhaps because of his training as a newspaperman, Hemingway is a master of the declarative, subject-verb-object sentence. His writing has been likened to a boxer's punches-combinations of lefts and rights coming at us without pause. As illustrated on page 145 "She went down the hall. The porter carried the sack. He knew what was in it," one can see that Hemingway's style is to-the-point and easy to understand. The simplicity and the sensory richness flow directly from Hemingway's and his characters' beliefs. The punchy, vivid language has the immediacy of a news bulletin: these are facts, Hemingway is telling us, and they can't be ignored. And just as Frederic Henry comes to distrust abstractions like "patriotism," so does Hemingway distrust them. Instead he seeks the concrete and the tangible. A simple "good" becomes higher praise than another writer's string of decorative adjectives. Hemingway's style changes, too, when it reflects his characters' changing states of mind. Writing from Frederic Henry's point of view, he sometimes uses a modified stream-of-consciousness technique, a method for spilling out on paper the inner thoughts of a character. Usually Henry's thoughts are choppy, staccato, but when he becomes drunk the language does too, as in the passage on page 13, "I had gone to no such place but to the smoke of cafes and nights when the room whirled and you needed to look at the wall to make it stop, nights in bed, drunk, when you knew that that was all there was, and the strange excitement of waking and not knowing who it was with you, and the world all unreal in the dark and so exciting that you must resume again unknowing and not caring in the night, sure that this was all and all and all and not caring." The rhythm, the repetition, have us reeling with Henry. In general, Hemingway's writing is descriptive yet effective in leaving much to the readers interpretation and allowing a different image to form in each readers mind. The simple sentences and incomplete descriptions frees your imagination and inspires each person to develop their own bitter love story.

Explore the extent to which personality traits explain student preferences for specific learning approaches and teaching modalities The WritePass Journal

Explore the extent to which personality traits explain student preferences for specific learning approaches and teaching modalities Review of the Literature Explore the extent to which personality traits explain student preferences for specific learning approaches and teaching modalities Review of the Literature  1.1 Introduction1.2 Learning Approaches1.3 Personality Teaching ModalitiesBibliographyRelated Review of the Literature   1.1 Introduction To learn more about education and to be able to improve the system to best provide for the individual needs of its learners, this study aims to investigate the link between an individual’s personality and their preferred learning style and teaching modality. There is a shortage of current research on how a student’s personality influences their learning style and preferred teaching modality. There is however, a large body of research that analyses the relationship between personality and learning. Curry (1983) describes learning as a future focused process that involves adaptation of constructs to bring about a change in an individual’s cognitive, practical, affective, social or moral skills which can be observable as a change in behaviour. The learning approach of an individual reflects the way in which they go about the process of learning with regard to their chosen setting, their internal goals, treatment of information, and desire to succeed. Understanding the motives for these individual differences in ways of learning and how this may apply to disparities in achievement has always been a concern for those studying educational practice. Teaching modalities refer to the way in which information is delivered to the student, and the learning environment that is created by the teacher. Higher Education employs several teaching modalities, including traditional lectures, small tutorial groups and one-to-one mentoring. Teaching modalities can vary as a product of the subject being taught, assessment criteria, and the individual preferences of lecturers, who may emphasise more theoretical or more practical approaches, or a combination of the two (Chamorro-Premuzic, Furnham Lewis, 2007; Chamorro-Premuzic, Furnam, Dissout Heaven, 2005). Despite this large scope for variability, there is little research into students’ preferences for different teaching modalities, especially into what factors contribute to these preferences. Fielder (1993) suggested that for the most effective teaching, a variety of approaches to teaching should be recruited in order to appeal to the different learning styles and personalities of the students. This hypothesis is supported by a study showing that a variety of teaching modalities was beneficial in engaging more individual learning styles (Dunn Dunn, 1979). Whilst there has been debate surrounding whether there is a scientific basis for learning styles (Curry, 1983; Pashler et al., 2009), this evidence appears to highlight their relevance to teaching. The large variation in teaching style, learning approach and academic performance poses several questions. Does student personality and their preferred learning approach account for preference of certain teaching modalities? What is the relationship between personality and an individual’s learning approach? It is therefore important to ask, are certain learning approaches suited to specific teaching modalities? The following hypotheses will be tested to investigate the relationship between student personality, preferred learning approach and preferred teaching modality (a) There is a significant relationship between certain personality characteristics and learning approaches. OR Is there a relationship between student personality traits and preferred learning approach? (b) There is a significant relationship between student personality traits and their preferred teaching modality. OR Is there a relationship between student personality traits and their preferred teaching modality? (c) There is a significant relationship between students’ preferred learning approaches and their preferences for teaching modalities OR Is there a relationship between students’ preferred learning approaches and their preferred teaching modality? 1.2 Learning Approaches Recent research has emphasised the important contribution of students’ learning approaches as determinants of how much knowledge they acquire, and how this translates into academic performance (Duff, 2003; Duff, Boyle, Dunleavy, 2004). In a series of investigations, Biggs (1987, 1992) conceptualised three major learning approaches to classify the way students approach their learning. These were classified as ‘deep’ surface’ and ‘achieving’. A deep approach to learning is characterised by intrinsic motivation, engagement with subject matter, and the desire to learn more detail and thoroughly understand the subject. Deep learners will aim to make the content of a lesson meaningful and develop a thorough understanding. Conversely, students who adopt a surface approach to learning show less interest in the task, avoid any challenging activities, and aim to pass exams rather than enhance their understanding. These students tend to receive informati on superficially and memorise isolated and unrelated facts (Biggs Tang, 2007). The achieving approach to learning is characterised by goal-oriented study strategies; based on competition between other students and ego enhancement. This approach lends to students that are motivated by the desire to achieve the top grades regardless of whether they find interest in the task at hand (Biggs, 1987; 1988). Biggs (1987) further divided each of the ‘deep’, ‘surface’ and ‘achieving’ approaches into ‘motive ‘ and ‘strategy’ as student goals may differ from the ways that these students go about achieving them. Previous research shows support for a direct relationship between student personality characteristics and student’s learning approaches (Zhang, 2003; Disth, 2003;). Zhang (2003) indicated that there are positive relationships between extraversion and surface learning, and between agreeableness and surface learning. This finding is supported in a study by Duff et al. (2004), who demonstrated a positive relationship between extraversion and a deep learning approach.   Additionally, individuals with conscientious and open personalities have been shown desire to develop deep learning strategies (Zhang, 2003) and those showing strong openness to experience have shown less propensity to being surface learners. Literature has examined several models of learning styles and proposed criticisms of such tools that purport to measure learning styles. One such tool is the Kolb Experiential Learning Model (ELM) (Kolb, 1976). Kolb’s ELM has received criticism that it is neither valid nor reliable, which has detrimental implications for education that could be if employed (Bergsteiner, Avery Neumann, 2010; Geiger, Boyle Pinto, 1993). However, an alternative model, the Learning Styles Questionnaire (LSQ) (Honey Mumford, 1992) has shown good test-retest reliability. Critics have suggested limitations to the LSQ, suggesting that the tool is useful for those students already interested in a particular career choice and would not be reliable enough for students attending non-vocational courses (Reynolds, 1997). Although there has been a debate as to the scientific basis of learning styles (Curry, 1983, Pashler et al., 2009), studies in the literature have provided irrefutable evidence that learning approaches and personality traits are strongly related. It may also be possible to infer that learning approaches have a distinctive value in explaining human behaviour, as learning is such a pervasive feature of being. This is supported by research from Busato, Prins, Elshout and Hamaker (2000), who assert that a learning styles inventory has a diagnostic value for identifying both strengths and weaknesses in the individual study behaviour of students. The present study will explore the extent to which personality and learning styles influence preferred teaching modalities. 1.3 Personality   The discovery of the â€Å"big five personality traits† can be interpreted as one of the major accomplishments of psychology in the twentieth century. These traits are agreeableness, conscientiousness, culture, emotional stability (versus neuroticism) and extraversion (Goldberg, 1990). Tokar (1995) proposed that the five-factor model is the one of the most â€Å"prominent and heuristic models of personality structure†. Several studies support Tokar’s view finding that the personality traits of the big five model accounts for a large amount of the variability in personality (Goldberg, 1993; Taylor McDonald, 1999). McCrae and Costa (1995a) acknowledge that personality has many other dimensions, proposing their ‘Model of Person,’ which uses the term ‘characteristic adaptation’ to explain personality traits that are not fundamental characteristics described by the big factor five. These characteristics adaptations are proposed to develop over time and are influenced by environment and experience, yet mediated by personality traits. These include characteristics such as habits and attitudes. The learning approach construct may well be one of such characteristic adaptation. This has been emphasised by a large research base into personality and how it is influences by a variety of variables. These include intellectual satisfaction, student self-esteem, teachers’ perceptions of their control over their students, teaching effectiveness and course type (Lieberman, Stroup-Bernham, Peel, 1998; McCaffrey, 1996; Parker, 1997; Rimmer, 1997). Additionally the role and influence of thinking styles has been addressed (Zhang Huang, 2001; Zhang, 2000a; Zhang 2000b). This emphasises the many possible influences that may be at work on the development of one’s learning approach. The work of Costa McCrae (1985-1992) has been successful in accommodating the big five personality constructs already assessed by Biggs (1987) and Eysenck (1975). They investigated the NEO Five-Factor Inventory and found that it was able to reliably assess the five personality dimensions. Other research into this inventory showed that it provided both good internal validity (Holden; 1994; Furnham 1996) and external validity using Holland’s (1994) Self Directed Search (Tokar Swanson, 1995; Fuller, Holland Johnson, 1999). This is all suggestive that these five predominant characteristics are reliable, replicable and representative of distinct traits. Neuroticism (N) at the extreme end of the scale may be characterised by anxiety nervousness and emotional lability. Individuals high on the N scale tend to have a pessimistic outlook and experience negative feelings that include emotional instability, guilt, embarrassment, and low self-esteem. The extraversion (E) subscale tends to be associated with the sociable and assertive individuals who prefer to work in a team with other people. Openness to Experience (O) is characterised by preference for variety, openness to change and variety, active imagination and independence of judgement. Additionally, people who score high on the O scale tend to be less conservative and traditional, however they also value and respect other people’s beliefs and conventions. Individuals scoring high on the culture (C) scale are characterised as being strong-willed, responsive and trustworthy with a strong sense of purpose. They also tend to be focused on task and goal outcome and are achievement oriented (Goldberg, 1990). Murray-Harvey (1994) observed that some descriptions of learning approaches are best formulated in terms of individual personality. For example, Shabolt (1978) demonstrated that those showing introverted or neurotic personality traits performed in conditions of structured teaching than when exposed to unstructured teaching methods. Eysenck (1978) also noted that personality and learning are closely linked, finding that extroverts tend to socialise during learning periods, are easily distracted from academic work and find concentration more difficult. Eysenck (1978) also postulated that those showing the neuroticism trait tend to let nerves interfere with their work. Furnham (1992) expanded this work, using the Eysenck Personality Questionnaire (EPQ) (Eysenck Eysenck, 1975; 1991) and the Learning Styles Questionnaire (Honey Mumford, 1992). Findings revealed that all elements of learning style were related to at least one of the elements of the personality traits, suggesting an inext ricable link between the two. Furthering this hypothesis, Jackson and Lawtey-Jones (1996) found evidence for a reversal of the relationship, finding that whilst learning styles could be fully explained by personality scales, additionally, all learning styles correlated significantly with at least one personality trait. Furnham (1992) however, suggested that an individual’s learning approach may be interpreted as a derivative of personality rather than a separate entity. Findings from Zhang (2003) strongly suggest reason for further research into the field of personality and learning, finding that the two are related, but are individual constructs (reporting a quarter overlap), whereas Duff et. al. (2004) report an even greater relationship between learning approaches and personality traits. Duff (2004) and Zhang (2003) reported similar associations between openness and a deep approach to learning and neuroticism and surface approach. Extroverts were proposed to adopt a surface approach (Zhang, 2003), however Duff et al. (2004) found that agreeableness purported a surface approach. Furthering this, one may deduce that learning approaches act as indirect influences of personality traits on learning success. This may be highlighted by some personality traits being more strongly related to some learning approaches than others. These mediating factors may be identified through the consideration of how an individual may adapt their behaviour to suit their personality. For example, the surface approach, which accounts for a potential of failure and comparison with others, is related to neuroticism, and openness, which is associated with curiosity, imagination, and intellectual values, is related to the deep approach. Again, the personality trait of conscientiousness is reflected in the thorough nature of the deep approach. Other research highlights that it is a variety of personality traits that are associated with each learning approach and that there is not a single distinct contributing trait per approach (Diseth, 2003). There are arguments to suggest a dubious link between personality traits and learning approaches, with belief that it cannot be modelled (Zhang Sternberg, 2006) due to the dubious nature of learning approaches. Despite this resistance, others authors have found evidence and argument that the learning approach concept is associated strongly with personality (Furnham, 1992; Gelade 2002; Jackson and Lawty-Jones, 1996). Messick (1994) proposed that learning approaches, when in conjunction with other influence and constructs can be seen to provide a metaphorical bridge between cognition and personality. This implies that learning approaches can act as mediators in bringing learning material to the individual and making it relevant. The connection between personality and learning approach has been under investigation for many years (Jung 1921; Myers Briggs, 1962), which highlights the importance that has been placed on the understanding of this construct. Information on the relationship between personality and learning approaches allows for insight into the motivations and strategies that may be used by individuals when learning from a very young age. This will be especially useful for those personality traits that show persist throughout life, and will enable tailoring of education and learning advice appropriately. Additionally, it is important to know if personality and learning approaches are distinct psychological constructs and if so whether these can account for students’ teaching preferences. This is important as teaching methods are a strong influence on students’ learning and, in turn, their academic performance. Teaching Modalities Fischer Fischer (1979) define teaching style as a â€Å"pervasive way of approaching learners that might be consistent with several methods of teaching†. Conversely, Conti (1989) argued that teaching style is less pervasive, suggesting that it a construct of the personal characteristics and qualities of the teacher and remains consistent in various situations. Knowles (1970) emphasised the importance of teaching style on the learning experience, asserting that â€Å"the behaviour of the teacher influences the character of the learning climate more than any other single factor†. Teaching itself has been suggested to consist of an instructor’s personal behaviour and the media used to transmit or retrieve data to or from the learner (Gregorc, 1982). The success of teaching style and the accomplishment this data transmission and retrieval may depend largely on matching. Matching is defined in terms of a compatibility of the environment and the interactive effects of the person (Hunt 1979). Early studies carried in the US such as that by Simon (1987) aimed to determine the relationship between students’ preferred learning approaches and their preferred teaching styles of college tutors. He administered the Cranfield Learning styles inventory to 4,000 students. His studies revealed that students indicated a preference for fewer lectures and a more hands on experience. Students showed preference for less faculty directed learning and more student independence, also preferring peer and instructor affiliation. Implications from this study were that instructors should decrease the number of lectures in favour for an increase direct experience where students become more involved in the course and programme direction. One of the strongest measures of learning success is academic achievement (Zimmerman, 1990), therefore the success of learning approaches and teaching modalities may be assessed through individual performance. Personality type has been shown to be a predictor of academic performance, with those with conscientious personality types achieving academic success across a range of subjects (Busato et al. 2000). Additionally, Lieberman, Stroup-Benham and Peel (1998) found that conscientiousness, agreeableness and extraversion correlated with intellectual satisfaction at medical school. When considering this relationship, it is important to consider the influences that personality type has on learning approach and how much this may contribute to the outcome of academic success. There have been many further studies relating to personality and academic achievement, which as discussed above is likely mediated through learning style, however there is an absence of research investigating the infl uence of teaching modalities. Current studies pertaining to academic achievement, learning approaches and teaching modalities found that students whose preferred learning approaches matched with their teacher’s preferred teaching modality received higher grades than those whose did not match (Mathews 1995; Rains, 1978; Hunter 1979). This highlights the importance of matching and concordance between student and teacher. This is supported by research suggesting that teaching modalities and students’ learning approaches interact to affect student learning (Saracho, 1990; Saracho Spodek, 1994; Taylor, 1994; Wentura, 1985). The current research base would be greatly improved by further investigation into the relationship between learning approaches and students’ preferred teaching styles, especially how these are both mediated by the individual student’s personality. Recent research carried out by Furnham (1996) begins to explore this avenue. 221 students took the Neo Five-Factor Personality Inventory, were assessed on their learning approaches and also their preferred teaching modalities. Personality trait correlated with learning approach, and both of these individually had an effect on preference for certain teaching modalities. The study employed Marton and Saljo’s (1976) strategy to assess teaching modalities and covered students’ approaches, styles, motivations and study methods (Entwistle Ramsden, 1983; Entwistle, 1997). Conclusions were that emotional stability, agreeableness, and deep learning approaches were associated with preference for interactive teaching and lessons. These personality traits were also negatively related learning via a surface approach. Findings showed that those with a preference for interactive teaching were likely to have a personality which combined emotional stability and agreeableness, and these students would prefer a deep learning approach. Bibliography Bergsteiner, H., Avery, G. C., Neuman, R. (2010) Kolb’s experiential learning model: critique from a modelling perspective. Studies in Continuing Education, 32 (1), 29-46. Biggs, J. B. (1988) Assessing students approach to learning. Australian Psychologist, 23 (2), 197-206. Biggs, J. B. (1987) student approaches to learning and studying. Hawthorn. Australian Council for Educational research. Busato, V.V., Prins, F J., Elshout, J.J., Haymaker, C. (2000) Intellectual ability, learning style, personality, achievement motivation and academic success of psychology students in higher education. Personality and Individual Differences, 29, 1057-1068. Chamorro-Premuzic, T.,Furnahm A., Lewis, M. (2007)Personality and approaches to learning predict preferences for different teaching methods. Learning and individual differences, 17, 241-250. Chamorro-Premuzic, T., Furnham, A., Dissout, G., Heaven. P. (2005) Personality and preference for academic assessment. A study with Australian university students. Learning and Individual Differences, 15 (4), 247-256. Conti, G. J. (1989) Assessing Teaching Style in Continuing Education. New Directions For Continuing Education. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. Costa, P. T., Jr., McCrae, R. R. (1992) Revised EO Personality Inventory (NEO-PI-R) and NEO Five-factor Inventory (NEO-FFI): Professional manual. Odessa, FL: Psychological Assessment Resources Inc., Costa, P.T., McCrae, R.R. (1992) The NEO PI/EO-FFI manual. Odessa, FL: psychological Assessment Resources. Curry, L. (1983) An Organisation of learning styles theory and constructs. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the American Educational Research Association Quebec. Diseth, A. (2003) Personality and approaches to learning as predictors of academic achievement. European Journal of Psychology, 17, 143-155. Duff, A. (2004) The role of cognitive learning styles in accounting education. Journal of Accounting Education. 22, 29-52. Duff, A. (2003) Quality of Learning on a MBA programme. The Impact of approaches to learning on academic performance. Personality and Individual Differences. Educational psychology, 23 (2), 123-139. Duff, A. Boyle, E., Dunleavy, J. F. (2004) The relationship between personality, approach to learning on academic performance. Personality and Individual Differences, 36, 1907-1920. Dunn, R. S., Dunn, K. J. (1979) Learning styles/teaching styles: Should they : : : can they : : : be matched? Educational Leadership, 36, 238–244. Entwistle, N. (1981) Styles of teaching and learning; an integrated outline of educational psychology for students. Teachers and lecturers. New York. NY: John Wiley Sons. Entwistle, N. J. (1997) The Approaches to Study skills Inventory for Students (ASSIST). Edinburgh: Centre for Research on Learning and Instruction. Eysenck, H. J. (1978) The development of personality and its relation to learning. In S. Murray-Smith (Ed). Melbourne studies in education. Australia: Melbourne University Press. Eysenck, H. J., Eysenck, S.B. (1975) Manual of the Eysenck Personality Questionnaire. London: Hodder and Stoughton. Eysenck, H. J. Eysenck, S.B. (1991) Manual of the Personality Scales. 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(1976) Learning style inventory: technical manual. Boston, MA: McBer 7 Company. Lieberman, S. A., Stroup-Bernham. C. A.,   Peel, J. L. (1998) Predictors of intellectual satisfaction in medical school: sociodemographic, cognitive and personality. Academic Medicine, 73 (10), S44-S46. Marton, F., Saljo, R. (1976) on qualative differences in learning 11: Outcome as a function of the learners conception of the task. British Journal of Educational psychology, 46, 115-127. Matthews, D. B. (1995) An investigation of the learning styles of students at selected postsecondary and secondary institutions in South Carolina. Research Bulletin, 60, 1-151. Mccaffrey, J. D. Jr. (1996) Instructor personality, course type and teaching effectiveness in Higher Education. Humanities and social Sciences, 56(9A), 3472. McCrae, R.R.   Costa, P.T. (1995) Trait explanations in personality psychology. European Journal of Psychology, 9, 231-252. Myers, I. B., Briggs, K. C. (1962) Myers-Briggs indicator. C.A: Consulting Psychologists Press Inc. Parker, W.D. (1997) a validation of the five-factor model of personality in academically talented youth across observers and instruments. Personality and Individual Differences. 25(6), 1005-1025. Raines, R. H. (1978) A comparative analysis of learning styles and teaching styles of mathematics students and instructors. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Nova University, Ft. Lauderdale, FL. Reynolds, M. (1997) Learning Styles: a critique. Management Learning, 28, 115-133. Rimmer, R. J. (1997) Personality and teachers’ student control ideology. Dissertation Abstracts International- Section A: Humanities and Social Sciences, 57 (11A), 4617. Steinberg, R. J. (1997) thinking styles. New York: Cambridge University Press. Saracho, O. N. (1990) The match and mismatch of teachers and students cognitive styles. Early Child Development and Care, 54, 99-109. Saracho, O. N., Spodek, B. (1994) Matching preschool childrens and teachers cognitive styles. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 78, 683-689. Simon, W. (1987) Public school teaching: an alternative. Science 235 (4786), 267. Taylor, A. L. (1994) The relationship between graduate students growth in learning (self-perceived) and the match between their preferred and experienced methods of teaching. Dissertation Abstracts International (Section A): Humanities and Social Sciences, 54 (7A): 2423. Tokar, D. (1995) Evaluation and correspondence between Holland’s vocational personality typology and the five-factor model. Dissertation Abstracts International, 55 (9B) 4217. Tokar, D, M., Swanson, J. L. (1995) Evaluation of the correspondence between Holland’s vocational personality typology and the five-factor model of personality. Journal of Vocational Behaviour, 46 91) 89-108. Wentura, D. F. (1985) The effects of matching teaching styles and learning styles on student performance in university classes. Dissertation Abstracts International, 46 (3A): 605. Witcher, A. E., Onwuegbuzie, A. J., Minor, L. C. (2001). Characteristics of effective teachers: Perceptions of preservice teachers. Research in the Schools, 8, 45-57. Zhang, L. F. (2003) Does the big five predict learning approaches? Personality and Individual differences, 34, 1431-1445. Zhang, L. F. (2000a) University students’ learning approaches in three cultures: an investigation of the Bigg’s 3P model. The Journal of psychology, 134 (1), 37-55. Zhang, L. F. (2000b) are thinking styles and personalities related? Educational Psychology, 20 (3), 271283. Zhang, L. F. Steinberg, R. (2006) the nature of intellectual styles. London: Lawrence Erlbaum. Zhang, L. F. (2002) Thinking styles and the Big Five Personality Traits. Educational psychology, 22 (1), 17-31. Zimmerman, B. J. (1996) Enhancing student academic and health functioning: A self regulatory perspective. School Psychology Quarterly, 11 (1), 47.

Critique of an article Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Critique of an article - Essay Example The article covers various aspects of astrocyte functioning in association with experimental basis on hippocampus cultures, cell cultures and imaging techniques. Interesting observations have been elaborated with regard to the calcium waves phenomenon and consequences of release of glutamate. Back in 1894, Rudolf Virchow referred to astrocytes as "glia", meaning "glue", as they were believed to be holding the neuronal elements together. Astrocytes: neuron ratio is approximately 10:1 and despite the larger number of astrocytes, it was neurons that were considered to perform the primary function of the nervous system. The increase in intracellular Ca[2+] level led to release of glutamate which in turn helped in modulating synapses to allow the conduction of the nerve impulse. The article, which spans over 14 pages, indeed provides a thorough, detailed insight in the working of astrocytes. It commences with a short description of the previously built information regarding astrocytes, and gradually gravitates towards the new findings regarding the functioning of astrocytes ... rding the functioning of astrocytes due to elevated intracellular calcium level as a result of various neurotransmitters like GABA, ATP, and glutamate. It has been brought forward that a calcium elevation in astrocytes is both necessary and sufficient to modulate synaptic transmission and to activate ionotropic glutamate receptors on hippocampal neurons. It is also supplemented by pictures, which are extremely useful for the comprehension of this thesis. The authors have no doubt done a good job in writing up this article. Not only has the information been provided with a systematic and methodical approach, it has been made sure that each conclusion that has been concurred has a factual experimental basis, which is mandatory and extremely impressive, especially as figurative data has been imparted. Though the material has been extrapolated and unnecessarily lengthened a few times due to repetition of certain clauses that could have been avoided, overall it provides all the essential information that a student would require. What has been most intriguing is the function of astrocytes as vasomodulators, ie, as intermediary regulators of blood flow and experimental basis showing that application of neurotransmitters like norepinephrine, acetylecholine can mobilize astrocytic calcium, suggesting extrinsic axon pathways can also act on astrocytes to regulate the calcium. The basis for bi-directional glutamate-mediated signalling between astrocytes and neurons is unclear and the concept of neuroligands is enlightening. The various experiments employed to support the notion that glutamate is the neurotransmitter mediating astrocyte-neuron signaling are satisfactory, however the fact that the researchers have gone one step further to explore the action of other

Sudden Death Case Study Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Sudden Death - Case Study Example The human rights mechanisms of the United Nations have addressed the issue of discrimination based on sexual orientation and gender identity in a range of ways. From the various discussions and considerations of the United Nations human rights mechanism, it is clear that lesbian, gay men, bisexuals, etc. have the right to non-discrimination and that they have the right to equality before the law. (Ian Martin, 2006)1 The present study focused on the issue of a man who is identified as bisexual is found dead in his apartment and has not been seen by his neighbors for the past five months. He was dead for the past six weeks. At the inquest, it came to light that he was not known to anybody, only a friends number was found, when contacted revealed that he had no family, was bisexual and was feared of being infected with HIV+. Same sex couples do not enjoy the same rights and protections as opposite sex couples, and consequently suffer from discrimination and disadvantage in access to social protection schemes, such as health care and pensions. In the labour market, a majority of Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual and Transgender people continue to hide their sexual orientation or to endure harassment out of fear of losing their job. In a book published by the International Labour Organization (ILO) in 2003, Jordi Estivill explains that "social exclusion may be understood as an accumulation of confluent processes with successive ruptures arising from the heart of the economy, politics and society, which gradually distances and places persons, groups, communities and territories in a position of inferiority in relation to centres of power, resources and prevailing values". People can be socially excluded as a result of many different, and sometimes compounding, factors. While young Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual and Transgend er people are at risk of being discriminated and excluded because of their sexual orientation. The exclusion experienced by Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual and Transgender people results mostly from the discrimination they face in all spheres of life, a discrimination which hampers their ability to have and access equal rights, and to participate fully in society. For one of the main characteristics of the social exclusion of LGBT people is their invisibility and marginalisation, or in more political terms, the lack of recognition of LGBT people as full members of a community and as citizens. (Judit Takacs 2006:5-11) 2 Social exclusion is a shorthand term for what can happen when people suffer from a combination of linked problems, such as unemployment, poor skills, low incomes, poor housing, high crime environments, bad health and family breakdown. The issue of social exclusion is multi-dimensional and one form of exclusion will often lead to another. Social exclusion leads to poor self est eem, which is implicated in HIV risk taking. A study shows that groups primarily affected by HIV in UK are those who are marginalized or socially excluded by the society. 3 Social disorganization may be the cause for the death of person. According to Strain theory of Cohen Cloward & Ohlin Agnew, when individuals cannot obtain goals, hey experience strain or pressure. Under certain conditions, they are likely to respond to this strain through crime. The strains leading to crime, however, may not only be linked to goal blockage but also to the presentation of noxious stimuli and the taking away of valued stimuli. Crime is a more

Advertising and Promotion In Business Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3500 words - 1

Advertising and Promotion In Business - Essay Example However, in order to attain such a position and image, effective advertising and promotion is essential. This is because; advertising means, a set of information or potential message communicated to the customers in order to improve its rankings and popularity in the market among others. By doing so, the level of awareness of the customers over the features and benefits of the products might get enhanced resulting in amplification of their reliability and consistency over the brand. For example: in classic advertising procedure, a specific problem is presented in front of the customers along with a solution to resolve the problem. This encourages the customers to purchase such type of product or services that may amplify the profitability and uniqueness of the brand or organization in the market1. Thus, advertising or marketing is recognised as a process of communicating the features and advantages of the product or services to its potential customers in order to improve the total sa le and revenue of the organization. However, in this process, the sender or the communicator presents the message to the receiver. He encodes the message and then decodes it and attains value information as presented below. By doing so, the level of relationship with the customers also gets enhanced resulting in amplification of the brand value and market share of the organization in the market among others. Due to these reasons, promotion and advertising is considered as holistic approaches of marketing. Â  

The Motivation To Choose Entrepreneurship Role Business Essay

The Motivation To Choose Entrepreneurship Role Business Essay There are varying definitions of entrepreneurship (e.g., Kirzner, 1973; Schumpter, 1934; Stevenson et al., 1989; Vesper, 1996) which portray the common feature of entrepreneurship as the act of creating a new venture (Gartner, 1985). Entrepreneurship can be regarded as the process of creating value by integrating the resources for exploiting an available opportunity. From this, it can be derived that an entrepreneur is someone who perceives an opportunity and creates an organization to pursue it (Bygrave Hofer, 1991, p 14). Timmons, (1994) has identified three crucial driving forces of entrepreneurship, which include (i) the entrepreneur or founder, (ii) the recognition of opportunity and (iii) the resources needed to found the firm. The process of entrepreneurship is complicated with the existence of various other factors such as risk, chaos, information asymmetries, resource scarcity, uncertainties, paradoxes and confusion. Successful entrepreneurship can be developed only when al l the three components are arranged in a proper fit. An entrepreneur has to face the challenge of manipulating and influencing the factors affecting the process of entrepreneurship so that he can improve the chances of success of the venture. Since opportunities seldom wait, right timing of the recognition of the opportunity becomes critically important for any entrepreneur. Literature has identified a number of factors influencing the process of entrepreneurship, which include creativity, optimism, information search, alertness, social networking and prior knowledge. Based upon the presence of some of these personal traits and by adapting to the circumstances, entrepreneurs are able to work their ways to recognizing profitable ventures and convert them into operable business ventures. However, the question remains as to which are the ones out of these factors motivate people to become entrepreneurs. The objective of the study was to examine the relative impact different motivational factors acting upon people in different age groups to take up entrepreneurial activity. 1.1 Motivation and Entrepreneurship The topic of motivation in the entrepreneurship can be addressed from an organizational psychological perspective. Campbell et al have developed a framework, which has identified the theories of motivation to progress from static, content-oriented theories to dynamic process-oriented ones. Content theories describe specific traits within individuals that initiate, direct, sustain and stop entrepreneurial behavior. Process theories on the other hand explain the ways in which behavior is initiated, directed, sustained and stopped. There are other situational and environmental factors, which influence any entrepreneurial activity. Previous research have attempted to identify these situational and environmental factors such as job displacement, previous work experience, availability of various resources, and governmental influences acting on the entrepreneurial activities of individuals. However, empirical studies on contextual factors were unable to find greater nexus between explanatory power and predictive ability (Kruegar, Reily, Carsrud, 2000). Many of the recent entrepreneurship models are process-oriented cognitive models. They mainly focus on attitudes and beliefs of individuals and the ways in which they can act on predicting intentions and behaviors. Cognitive processes often lead to all human endeavors, especially complex ones such as new venture initiation. Humans are characterized to categorize the possible future outcomes to decide on most desirable ones. They further analyze whether it is feasible to pursue attaining these desired outcomes. It is not reasonable to expect people to pursue those outcomes, which they perceive to be undesirable or unfeasible. Therefore, the perceptions of the people become an important motivational factor with respect to their entrepreneurial choices. It is found that many cognitive models explaining the motivation to choose a new entrepreneurial activity is based on Vrooms, (1964) expectancy framework. These models use different terminologies and they are built on different theoretical bases. However, the commonality among these models can be identified with Vrooms expectancy model. The Vroom model postulates that an individual can be expected to choose among alternative behaviors by considering the one, which will lead to the most desirable outcome for him. Motivation is conceptualized as the product of expectancy, instrumentality, and valence. Vrooms (1964) expectancy model forms the common base for a number of process-oriented explanations connected with entrepreneurial motivation. Current process models are grounded on the basic conception that an individuals entrepreneurial intentions to choose a particular activity are predicted by the questions (i) is entrepreneurship is desirable to him to lead to provide the desired outc omes and (ii) is entrepreneurship is feasible for him to decide whether he possesses the required qualities to become a successful entrepreneur. 1.2 Current Process Models of Entrepreneurial Motivation Baumol, (1990) suggested the role of reward structure in motivating entrepreneurial activity. Reward structure as an economic perspective for the initiation of a new venture is based on the usefulness, utility or desirability of an entrepreneurial career. Campbells (1992) decision model makes a comparison of the expected net present benefits of entrepreneurship and the expected gains from a possible employment opportunity. On the same lines, Praag Cramer, (2001) advocated that people choose entrepreneurship if they expect the rewards of such entrepreneurship would surpass the wages earned by them out of employment. Levesque, Shephard, Douglas, (2002) examined the selection of the course of action between employment and entrepreneurship in the form of self-employment in the context of a utility-maximizing model, which tends to change based on the age of the individual denoting the stage of life. The common thread among these economic models is the explicit consideration of the role of risk in choosing to become an entrepreneur. Other recent research is based on an organizational psychological framework conducted by Bird, (1988). This work suggests the importance of entrepreneurial intentions as a precursor to new venture creation stressing the need to develop a behavioral, process-oriented model of entrepreneurship. 1.3 Purpose of the Study Problem Statement There are a number of motivational factors, which influence the entrepreneurial intentions of the individuals. Extensive attitudinal research has investigated the topic of the role of different attitudinal factors because these factors have been considered as the better explanatory factors for choosing entrepreneurial activities than demographic and personality variations. Most of these studies base their findings on attitudinal factors which have an influence on confidence, enthusiasm, inclination and aspiration towards choosing entrepreneurship (Aronson, Wilson, Akert, 2005; Beugelsdijk Noorderhaven, 2004; Henderson Robertson, 2000). Some studies have examined the influence of attitude towards entrepreneurial aspiration (Krueger et al 2000). There is a void to be filled in the demographic area of research for example, the influence of age and educational qualifications on the choice of entrepreneurship has not been studied extensively. In this context, the current study will at tempt to examine the relative influence of age factor on individuals choosing to become entrepreneur. With the average age expectancy going up and the availability of resources in the hands of baby boomers, the chances of individuals becoming entrepreneurs at their middle ages cannot be ruled out. Therefore, a study of the influence of age factor on entrepreneurial decisions become important and they cannot be considered out of place. The findings of the research is expected to reveal the attitudinal and other motivational factors influencing the entrepreneurial decisions among individuals in different age groups, which can be used as a guiding factor in addressing different issues in becoming an entrepreneur in the middle age. By engaging the quantitative research method of survey through a well-constructed questionnaire, the study has focused on the examination of the entrepreneurial choice among aspiring individuals in two different age groups. The study will also present an analytical review of the available literature on the topic. For a comprehensive presentation, the paper is structured to have different chapters. The introductory chapter gives an insight into the topic under study. Chapter 2 will present a review of the relevant literature to extend the knowledge of the readers on the subject of entrepreneurial opportunity recognition process. Chapter 3 deals with the aims and objectives of the study followed by chapter 4 detailing the research methodology. Chapter 5 includes the findings of the research and a detailed discussion on the findings and some concluding remarks are presented in chapter 6.

Anne Tylers classic novel, Dinner at the Homesick Restaurant Essay

Anne Tyler's classic novel, Dinner at the Homesick Restaurant In Anne Tyler's classic novel, Dinner at the Homesick Restaurant, the reader experiences a variety of conflicts between parent and child, one of the most apparent being that between Pearl Tull and her eldest son, Cody. These two characters never seem to see eye to eye, as Pearl prefers to see only the negative aspects of her children. Cody never truly relates to Pearl and her manic ways. As the conflict unfolds between Pearl and Cody, the deeper meaning of the story is revealed; there is never a perfect family, but nonetheless, theirs is a family. As the first child, Cody is expected to excel and be the ideal son. He establishes a rebellious personality once his younger brother Ezra is born. Because of this brotherly competition, he and Pearl never really get along. Whether or not they even truly loved each other is an idea to be questioned. Pearl doesn't like the idea that Cody might, for once in his life, be better than Ezra. The reader sees this in chapter 2, when Pearl insists that Ezra try to shoot ... Anne Tyler's classic novel, Dinner at the Homesick Restaurant Essay Anne Tyler's classic novel, Dinner at the Homesick Restaurant In Anne Tyler's classic novel, Dinner at the Homesick Restaurant, the reader experiences a variety of conflicts between parent and child, one of the most apparent being that between Pearl Tull and her eldest son, Cody. These two characters never seem to see eye to eye, as Pearl prefers to see only the negative aspects of her children. Cody never truly relates to Pearl and her manic ways. As the conflict unfolds between Pearl and Cody, the deeper meaning of the story is revealed; there is never a perfect family, but nonetheless, theirs is a family. As the first child, Cody is expected to excel and be the ideal son. He establishes a rebellious personality once his younger brother Ezra is born. Because of this brotherly competition, he and Pearl never really get along. Whether or not they even truly loved each other is an idea to be questioned. Pearl doesn't like the idea that Cody might, for once in his life, be better than Ezra. The reader sees this in chapter 2, when Pearl insists that Ezra try to shoot ...